Neurology: Neurochemistry, Neuropharmacology and Neurosciences

Neurochemistry: is the study of the identities, structures and functions of compounds (neurochemicals) that are generated by and that modulate the nervous system. Neurochemicals include oxytocin, serotonin, dopamine and other neurotransmitters and neurotransmitter-regulating substances.

Neuropharmacology: is a branch of study which deals with drugs that affect the nervous system. It is focused on the development of compounds that may be of benefit to individuals who suffer from neurological or psychiatric illness.

Therefore, this field requires an in-depth knowledge of how the nervous system functions as well as the way in which each drug acts upon neural circuits and alters cellular behavior, and eventually the organism’s behavior.

Neuropharmacology itself came into existence only five decades ago, prior to which there were only four drugs available for nerve disorders: morphine, caffeine, nitrous oxide, and aspirin. In the next 50 years, a new set of drugs such as antihistamines, barbiturates, and opioid analogs have emerged.

Genetics is the investigation of qualities, hereditary variety, and heredity in living life forms. It is for the most part, thought about a field of science, however, crosses as often as possible with numerous other life sciences and is unequivocally connected with the investigation of data frameworks. Genetic qualities and neurology are contemplated together in a branch of science called neurogenetics, which concerns the improvement and capacity of the sensory system and in addition, the pretended by qualities in its advancement. Neurogenetics emphasizes the role of single genes without a network-interaction context when studying the nervous system. 

Neuroscience Conferences assembles an ideal stage for sharing and creating imaginative thoughts on the most recent improvements and future points of view in the field of neurology and neurophysiology.

• Neuro Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups.

• Psychotherapy is a type of treatment that can help individuals experiencing a wide array of mental health conditions and emotional challenges. Psychotherapy can help not only alleviate symptoms, but also, certain types of psychotherapies can help identify the psychological root causes of one’s condition so a person can function better and have enhanced emotional well-being and healing & conditions  that can be helped by psychotherapy include coping with stressful life events, the impact of trauma, medical illness or loss such as the death of a loved one; and specific mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety. There are several different types of psychotherapy and some types may work better with certain clinical situations. Psychotherapy may be used in combination with medication or other therapies

Neural plasticity also known as neuroplasticity or brain plasticity, can be defined as the ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections.

The four forms of functional neuroplasticity are homologous area adaptation, cross-modal reassignment, map expansion, and compensatory masquerade

Neuroplasticity occurs as a result of learning, experience and memory formation, or as a result of damage to the brain. Learning and new experiences cause new neural pathways to strengthen whereas neural pathways which are used infrequently become weak and eventually die. This process is called synaptic pruning.

What is neurological rehabilitation?

Neurological rehabilitation (rehab) is a doctor-supervised program designed for people with diseases, injury, or disorders of the nervous system. Neurological rehab can often improve function, reduce symptoms, and improve the well-being of the patient.

Neurophysiology:Neurophysiology is a branch of physiology and neuroscience that studies nervous system function rather than nervous system architecture. This area aids in the diagnosis and monitoring of neurological diseases.

What is the study of neurophysiology:

Neurophysiology is a clinical and diagnostic branch of medicine consisting of a combination of neurology and physiology. It involves studying the functioning of the nervous system- brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves and sensory organs

Neuroimaging is a discipline that studies the structure and function of the nervous system by means of imaging technology, and where the images of the brain can be obtained in a non-invasive way. It explores a series of mechanisms such as cognition, information processing, and brain changes in the pathological state.

Radiology is a branch of medicine that uses imaging technology to diagnose and treat disease. Radiology may be divided into two different areas, diagnostic radiology and interventional radiology. Doctors who specialize in radiology are called radiologists.

Neuro-Ophthalmology is a super specialty that merges the fields of neurology and ophthalmology. Neuro-ophthalmologists are responsible for the diagnosis and management of complex systemic diseases of the nervous system that affect vision, eye movements and alignment, as well as pupillary reflexes.

Common Symptoms:

• Sudden decrease or loss of vision
• Sudden transient loss of vision (called transient ischemic attack or eye stroke)
• Visual hallucinations
• Double vision or diplopia
• Intractable headaches
• Pupillary abnormalities (sluggish reaction, the difference in size of the pupils)
• Sudden onset of difficulties in identifying colors
• Inability to tolerate bright light
• Visual Field Defects
• Squint or strabismus (especially adult onset).

Neuroimmunology is a field combining neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system. Neuroimmunologists seek to better understand the interactions of these two complex systems during development, homeostasis, and response to injuries. A long-term goal of this rapidly developing research area is to further develop our understanding of the pathology of certain neurological diseases, some of which have no clear etiology. In doing so, neuroimmunology contributes to development of new pharmacological treatments for several neurological conditions. Many types of interactions involve both the nervous and immune systems including the physiological functioning of the two systems in health and disease, malfunction of either and or both systems that leads to disorders, and the physical, chemical, and environmental stressors that affect the two systems on a daily basis.

Neuro-infectious Diseases:

• Herpes encephalitis.
• HIV / AIDS.
• Meningitis.
• Neurocysticercosis.
• Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy.
• Toxoplasmosis.
• Tropical spastic paraparesis.

Neurological disorders include a wide range of disorders, such as epilepsy, learning disabilities, neuromuscular disorders, autism, ADD, brain tumors, and cerebral palsy, just to name a few. Some neurological conditions are congenital, emerging before birth.

An ischemic stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen and nutrients. Brain cells begin to die in minutes.

A stroke is a medical emergency, and prompt treatment is crucial. Early action can reduce brain damage and other complications,the good news is that many fewer Americans die of stroke now than in the past. Effective treatments can also help prevent disability from stroke.

Signs and symptoms of stroke include:

• Trouble speaking and understanding what others are saying. You may experience confusion, slur words or have difficulty understanding speech.
• Paralysis or numbness of the face, arm or leg. You may develop sudden numbness, weakness or paralysis in the face, arm or leg.
• This often affects just one side of the body. Try to raise both your arms over your head at the same time. If one arm begins to fall, you may be having a stroke. Also, one side of your mouth may droop when you try to smile.
• Problems seeing in one or both eyes. You may suddenly have blurred or blackened vision in one or both eyes, or you may see double.
• Headache. A sudden, severe headache, which may be accompanied by vomiting, dizziness or altered consciousness, may indicate that you're having a stroke.
• Trouble walking. You may stumble or lose your balance. You may also have sudden dizziness or a loss of coordination.

Neurooncology is a branch of medicine that concerns cancers of the brain and spinal cord. Cancers of the nervous system are often severe conditions that eventually become life threatening

Neuro-oncology focuses on treating cancer that affects the nervous system, which is made up of the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. The tumors that we treat can directly affect the nervous system, or it can indirectly affect it through other types of cancers, such as lung cancer or breast cancer.

What is neuroscience nursing?

Neuroscience nurses care for people with a variety of neurological conditions and disorders across the lifespan and in all health care settings.

A neuroscience nurse treats patients with neurological injuries and disorders, including head and spinal trauma from accidents, or illnesses such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, epilepsy and multiple sclerosis.

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific field that is concerned with the study of the biological processes and aspects that underlie cognition, with a specific focus on the neural connections in the brain which are involved in mental processes. It addresses the questions of how cognitive activities are affected or controlled by neural circuits in the brain. Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of both neuroscience and psychology, overlapping with disciplines such as behavioural neuroscience, cognitive psychology, physiological psychology and affective neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience relies upon theories in cognitive science coupled with evidence from neurobiology, and computational modelling.

The field of Behavioural Neuroscience is the study of the biological basis of behaviour in humans and animals. This discipline typically examines the brain's neurotransmissions and the psychological events associated with biological activity.

Dementia is a term used to describe a group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking and social abilities severely enough to interfere with your daily life. It isn't a specific disease, but several diseases can cause dementia. Though dementia generally involves memory loss, memory loss has different causes

Vascular dementia is a common type of dementia caused by reduced blood flow to the brain. It's estimated to affect around 150,000 people in the UK. Dementia is the name for problems with mental abilities caused by gradual changes and damage in the brain. It's rare in people under 65

Stages of Vascular Dementia:

• Normal behaviour. People with early stage dementia exhibit completely normal behaviour. ...
• Very mild cognitive decline/forgetfulness. ...
• Mild cognitive decline. ...
• Moderate cognitive decline. ...
• Moderately severe cognitive decline. ...
• Severe cognitive decline. ...
• Very severe cognitive decline.

Signs of vascular dementia:

• slowness of thought.
• difficulty with planning.
• trouble with understanding.
• problems with concentration.
• changes to your mood or behaviour.
• problems with memory and language (but these are not as common as they are in people with Alzheimer's disease).

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurologic disorder that causes the brain to shrink (atrophy) and brain cells to die. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia — a continuous decline in thinking, behavioral and social skills that affects a person's ability to function independently

The early signs of the disease include forgetting recent events or conversations. As the disease progresses, a person with Alzheimer's disease will develop severe memory impairment and lose the ability to carry out everyday tasks and there is no treatment that cures Alzheimer's disease or alters the disease process in the brain. In advanced stages of the disease, complications from severe loss of brain function — such as dehydration, malnutrition or infection

Parkinson's disease is a progressive disorder that affects the nervous system and the parts of the body controlled by the nerves. Symptoms start slowly. The first symptom may be a barely noticeable tremor in just one hand. Tremors are common, but the disorder may also cause stiffness or slowing of movement.

Parkinson's disease is caused by a loss of nerve cells in the part of the brain called the substantia nigra. Nerve cells in this part of the brain are responsible for producing a chemical called dopamine.

Spinal cord disorders can originate from either outside or inside the spinal cord. Damage from the outside of the cord is caused by compression of the spinal cord or injury. The spinal cord may be compressed due to a bone fracture, spinal degeneration, or abnormalities, such as a hematoma, tumor or herniated disk

Types of spinal disorders:

• Lordosis/Swayback: the spine of a person with lordosis curves significantly inward at the lower back.
• Kyphosis: Characterized by an abnormally rounded upper back (more than 50 degrees of curvature).
• Scoliosis: Scoliosis causes a sideways curve to the spine.

Treats children who have problems with their nervous system. Problems in the nervous system can start in the brain, spine, nerves, or muscles. These can lead to problems such as seizures, headaches, or developmental delays.

Pediatric neurological conditions:

The discipline of child neurology encompasses diseases and disorders of the spinal cord, brain, peripheral nervous system (PNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS), muscles, and blood vessels that affect individuals in these age groups.

Brain tumor is a mass or growth of abnormal cells in your brain.

Many different types of brain tumors exist. Some brain tumors are noncancerous (benign), and some brain tumors are cancerous (malignant). Brain tumors can begin in your brain (primary brain tumors), or cancer can begin in other parts of your body and spread to your brain as secondary (metastatic) brain tumors.

Neurosurgery: Most people think of neurosurgery as brain surgery — but it is much more!

It is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of of patients with injury to, or diseases/disorders of the brain, spinal cord and spinal column, and peripheral nerves within all parts of the body. The specialty of neurosurgical care includes both adult and pediatric patients. Dependent upon the nature of the injury or disease a neurological surgeon may provide surgical and/or non-surgical care.

What is meant by clinical intervention?

In the health research context, a clinical intervention is described as any intentional action designed to result in an outcome. Thus, clinical interventions establish the magnitude of the effect of an intervention on health related outcomes.

Clinical Case Report?

A case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence and as such, remain one of the cornerstones of medical progress and provide many new ideas in medicine.

Robotic neurosurgery:

Robotic surgery, also called robot-assisted surgery, allows doctors to perform many types of complex procedures with more precision, flexibility and control than is possible with conventional techniques. Robotic surgery is usually associated with minimally invasive surgery — procedures performed through tiny incisions.

Robot-assisted neurosurgery uses an advanced surgical tool called ROSA Brain to perform minimally invasive procedures in the brain. ROSA stands for robotic operating surgical assistant. It combines a robotic arm with the ability to get detailed pictures of your child's brain.

Computational neuropsychology is a specialization within computational psychology (Sun, 2008) that mainly seeks to model “higher level” functions such as personality, decision making, stereotype formation, language acquisition, and psychological disorders.

Neuroinformatics is a research field devoted to the development of neuroscience data and knowledge bases together with computational models and analytical tools for sharing, integration, and analysis of experimental data and advancement of theories about the nervous system function. In the INCF context, neuroinformatics refers to scientific information about primary experimental data, ontology, metadata, analytical tools, and computational models of the nervous system. The primary data includes experiments and experimental conditions concerning the genomic, molecular, structural, cellular, networks, systems and behavioural level, in all species and preparations in both the normal and disordered states.

Epilepsy is a central nervous system (neurological) disorder in which brain activity becomes abnormal, causing seizures or periods of unusual behavior, sensations and sometimes loss of awareness. Anyone can develop epilepsy. Epilepsy affects both males and females of all races, ethnic backgrounds and ages

In epilepsy, the electrical signals in the brain become scrambled and there are sometimes sudden bursts of electrical activity. This is what causes seizures. In most cases, it's not clear why this happens and Abnormalities in the brain, including brain tumors or vascular malformations such as arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) and cavernous malformations, can cause epilepsy. Stroke is a leading cause of epilepsy in adults older than age 35.